The awareness of thyroid disorders and an iodine-rich diet among a sample of the population in some western cities of Libya
Article Sidebar
Vol. 23 No. 2 (2024)
April 11, 2023
July 20, 2024
Abstract
The deficiency of iodine in a diet is a global health issue. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the awareness of thyroid disorders and explore iodine-related dietary knowledge and practices among a sample of the population in some cities in western Libya. A cross-sectional survey was carried out among 425 individuals in the population, of whom 265 were healthy and 160 had thyroid disorders. The sample consisted of 72.0% females and 28.0% males. More than a quarter of the sample (26.6%) were between the ages of 38 and 47. The data were analyzed by SPSS. The findings revealed that only 37.9%, 43.8%, and 46.9% of the respondents knew that thyroid dysfunction causes brain damage, iodine is the main cause of thyroid problems, and thyroid disorders are genetic, respectively. As well, almost one-third of respondents (33.0%) expected that the mothers' thyroid problems would cause harm to the fetus. Only 14.6% of respondents realized that the function of the thyroid gland is important for metabolism. The findings also revealed that only 33.4% of respondents knew the main dietary sources of iodine. As well, only 23.5% of respondents ate seafood two or three times a week. Very few of the respondents (8.90%) used iodized salt. The study indicated that there is a need to raise awareness of thyroid disorders and their relationship with food among the population in western Libya. Therefore, effective and continuous programs from responsible authorities are essential.
References
- Trumbo, P., Yates, A. A., Schlicker, S., & Poos, M. (2001). Dietary reference intakes: vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101(3): 294-301. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222310/
- Pearce, E. N., Lazarus, J. H., Moreno-Reyes, R., & Zimmermann, M. B. (2016). Consequences of iodine deficiency and excess in pregnant women: an overview of current knowns and unknowns. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 104(suppl_3): 918S-923S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27534632/
- Wu, Y., Chen, W., Shen, J., Tan, L., L’Abbe, M. R., Pearce, E. N., Wang, W., Tian, X., Wang, W. & Zhang, W. (2018). Reproducible and reliable general semi quantitative food frequency questionnaire for evaluating iodine intake in Chinese children. Nutr. Res., 55: 72–80.
- WHO. (2007) . Assessment of iodine deficiency disorders and monitoring their elimination: a guide for programme managers, 3rd ed. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/ 43781
- Bath, S. C., Steer, C. D., Golding, J., Emmett, P., & Rayman, M. P. (2013). Effect of inadequate iodine status in UK pregnant women on cognitive outcomes in their children: results from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). The Lancet, 382(9889): 331-337.
- Zimmermann, M. B., & Boelaert, K. (2015). Iodine deficiency and thyroid disorders. The lancet Diabetes & endocrinology, 3(4): 286-295. https://www.uni-potsdam.de/fileadmin/projects/international-nutrition/images/Workshop_2015_Thailand/Iodine_deficiency_and_Thyroid_disorder.pdf
- Kapil U. (2007). Health consequences of iodine deficiency. Sultan Qaboos University medical journal, 7(3), 267–272. https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1590&context=smhpapers
- Zimmermann, M. B. (2009). Iodine deficiency. Endocrine Reviews, 30(4): 376-408. https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/30/4/376/2355070
- Andrews, K. W., Roseland, J. M., Gusev, P. A., Palachuvattil, J., Dang, P. T., Savarala, S., Han, F., Pehrsson, P. R., Douglass, L.W., Dwyer, J. T., & Betz, J. M. (2017). Analytical ingredient content and variability of adult multivitamin/mineral products: national estimates for the dietary supplement ingredient database. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 105(2): 526-539. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5267296/
- Ershow, A. G., Skeaff, S. A., Merkel, J. M., & Pehrsson, P. R. (2018). Development of databases on iodine in foods and dietary supplements. Nutrients, 10(1): 100. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5793328/
- Centre for Food Safety (2011). Risk Assessment Studies Dietary Iodine Intake in Hong Kong Adults. Report No. 45. Food and Environmental Hygiene Department. The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. https://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/programme/programme_rafs/files/RA_Iodine_Report_e.pdf
- Bender, A. (1992). Meat and meat products in human nutrition in developing countries. FAO Food Nutr Pap., 53: 1-91. https://www.fao.org/3/t0562e/t0562e00.htm
- Smyth, P. P. (2021). Iodine, seaweed, and the thyroid. European thyroid journal, 10(2), 101-108. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8077470/
- Al Shahrani, A. S., El-Metwally, A., Al-Surimi, K., Salih, S. B., Saleh, Y., Al-Shehri, A., & Ali, A. (2016). The epidemiology of thyroid diseases in the Arab world: A systematic review. Journal of Public health and Epidemiology, 8(2): 17-26. https://academicjournals.org/journal/JPHE/article-full-text-pdf/0C73CDC56758
- Mohammed, N. M., & Asmeil, B. A. S. (2021). A study on the prevalence of thyroid disorders among males and females in Libyan population. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Sciences and Advanced Technology, 1: 328–333. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10041002/
- Pearce, E. N., Pino, S., He, X., Bazrafshan, H. R., Lee, S. L., & Braverman, L. E. (2004). Sources of dietary iodine: bread, cows’ milk, and infant formula in the Boston area. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89(7): 3421-3424. https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/89/7/3421/2844466
- Charlton, K., Yeatman, H., Lucas, C., Axford, S., Gemming, L., Houweling, F., & Ma, G. (2012). Poor knowledge and practices related to iodine nutrition during pregnancy and lactation in Australian women: pre-and post-iodine fortification. Nutrients, 4(9): 1317-1327. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3475241/
- WHO. (2014). Guideline: fortification of food-grade salt with iodine for the prevention and control of iodine deficiency disorders. World Health Organization https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/136908
- Abuye, C., Berhane, Y., Akalu, G., Getahun, Z., & Ersumo, T. (2007). Prevalence of goiter in children 6 to 12 years of age in Ethiopia. Food Nutr Bull., 28(4): 391-8. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/156482650702800403
- Andersson, M, & Zimmermann, M. (2012). Global iodine nutrition: a remarkable leap forward in the past decade. IDD Newsletter.,40(1) :1-5. https://ign.org/app/uploads/2023/04/IDD-NL-2012-1.pdf
- Central Bank of Libya (2020). Economic Bulletin, vo. 60, fourth quarter.
- Sharaf A. T. (1971). Libya geography book. 2nd edition Almaaref, Alexandria, pp.425
- Qassium, A. E., Ben-Abdullah, A. R., Alturky, A. & Ben-Musa, M. N. (2009). Guide to bony fishes in Libyan waters. MBRC, pp.237.
- Al-Gmati, H. M., Qassium, A. E., Ben-Abdullah, A. R., Alturky, A., & Ben-Musa, M. N. (2012). Guide to cartilaginous fishes in Libyan waters. MBRC, pp.100.
- Abuhlega, T. A., & Hassan, T. M. (2020). Evaluation of fish consumption pattern in Tripoli city–Libya and the extent of awareness of its importance and nutritional value. The Libyan Journal of Agriculture, 25(3): 24-38. https://ljagric.uot.edu.ly/lje/index.php/ljagrice/article/view/77/54
- Ciekure, E. & Siksna, I. (2017). Knowledge of the importance of iodine in nutrition among adults in Latvia. The Latvian Academy of Sciences. Section B, 71 (6): 408–413. https://sciendo.com/pdf/10.1515/prolas-2017-0072
- Jooste, P. L., Upson, N., & Charlton, K. E. (2005). Knowledge of iodine nutrition in the South African adult population. Public Health Nutrition, 8(4): 382-386.
- Abebe, Z., Gebeye, E. & Tariku, A. (2017). Poor dietary diversity, wealth status and use of un-iodized salt are associated with goiter among school children: a cross-sectional study in Ethiopia. BMC Public Health,17:44. DOI 10.1186/s12889-016-3914-z. https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-016-3914-z
- Bazezew, M. M., Yallew, W. W., & Belew, A. K. (2018). Knowledge and practice of iodized salt utilization among reproductive women in Addis Ababa city. BMC Res Notes, 11:734. https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13104-018-3847-y
- Obssie, G. F., Ketema, K., & Tekalegn, Y. (2020). Availability of adequately iodized dietary salt and associated factors in a town of southeast Ethiopia: a community-based cross-sectional survey. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2020: 1-7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33489359/
- Mamo, W., Derso, T., & Nigatu, S. G. (2021). Adequately iodized salt utilization and associated factors among households in Tach Armachio district, Northwest Ethiopia: A Community-based cross-sectional study. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2021, 1-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8064771/
- Senbeta, A. M., Mamo, F. T., Desalegn, B. B., & Daba, A. K. (2021). Knowledge and practices of iodized salt utilization, health consequences, and iodine concentration on dietary salts at retailer and households in Jigjiga town, Somali, Ethiopia. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 7(1): 1911421. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2021.1911421
- Mehl, S., Sun, Q., Gorlich, C. L., Hackler, J., Kopp, J. F., Renko, K., Mittag, J., Schwerdtle, T., & Schomburg, L. (2020). Cross-sectional analysis of trace element status in thyroid disease. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., 58: 126430. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8064771/
- Hamad, K. I. (2018). Risk factors of hypothyroidism among Palestinian in Gaza strip: case control study. M.S.C thesis. The Islamic University of Gaza. pp92. https://dspace.alquds.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/c7f1d7ae-5036-4720-b045-48a9c1a571f3/content
- Almuzaini, A., Alshareef, B., Alghamdi, S., Munshy, A. A., Aljarallah, A. K. M., Salman, S. A. A., & Alkhaldi, R. D. A. (2019). Assessment of knowledge and awareness regarding thyroid disorders among Saudi people. IJDMC., 3(12): 1070-1076. https://www.bibliomed.org/mnsfulltext/51/51-1568037206.pdf?1681085030
- Zeru, A. B., Muluneh, M. A., H Giorgis, K. K., Menalu, M. M., & Tizazu, M. A. (2021). Iodine deficiency disorder and knowledge about benefit and food source of iodine among adolescent girls in the north Shewa zone of Amhara region. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7817306/
- Lamfon, H. A. (2008). Thyroid disorders in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Ozean J Appl Sci., 1(1): 52-58. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7841587/
- Kumar, P., Khandelwal, D., Mittal, S., Dutta, D., Kalra, S., Katiyar, P., & Aggarwal, V. (2017). Knowledge, awareness, practices and adherence to treatment of patients with primary hypothyroidism in Delhi. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 21(3): 429. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5434728/
- Almousa, A. I. S., & Alotaibi, A. M. D. (2018). Survey of awareness of thyroid disorders among the Riyadh population, Central Region of Saudi Arabia. The Egyptian Journal of Hospital Medicine, 72(2): 4039-4044. https://ejhm.journals.ekb.eg/article_9095.html
- Fu, M., Gao, Y., Guo, W., Meng, Q., Jin, Q., Yang, R., Yang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, W. (2022). Mechanisms of sodium/iodide symporter-mediated mammary gland iodine compensation during lactation. Nutrients, 14(17): 3592. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9460413/
- Azizi, F., & Smyth, P. (2009). Breastfeeding and maternal and infant iodine nutrition. Clinical endocrinology, 70(5): 803-809.
- Konwar, G. & Deori, U. (2019). Assessment of knowledge and awareness on thyroid disorders and impact of thyroid disorders during pregnancy among women in Assam. International Journal of Health Sciences & Research, 9(9): 99-102. https://www.ijhsr.org/IJHSR_Vol.9_Issue.9_Sep2019/16.pdf
- Ghawil, M., Tonutti, E., Abusrewil, S., Visentini, D., Hadeed, I., Miotti, V., Pecile, P., Morgham, A. & Tenore, A. (2011). Autoimmune thyroid disease in Libyan children and young adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Pediatrics, 170(8): 983-987.
- Memon, A., Varghese, A., & Suresh., A. (2002). Benign thyroid disease and dietary factors in thyroid cancer: A case–control study in Kuwait. Br. J. Cancer, 86(11):1745-1750. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12087461/
- El-Mougi, F., Abd-El-Ghaffar, S., Fayek, N., & Mohammed, M. (2004). Urinary iodine and other iodine deficiency indicators in a sample of school age children in Egypt. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 10(6): 863-870. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/119490
- Nasheiti, N. (2005). Childhood hypothyroidism in Iraq: a retrospective study. Int. J. Endocrinol. Metabol., 3(3): 136-139. https://brieflands.com/articles/ijem-75013.html
- Albasri, A., Sawaf, Z., Hussainy, A. S., & Alhujaily, A. (2014). Histopathological patterns of thyroid disease in Al-Madinah region of Saudi Arabia. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 15(14): 5565-5570. https://www.ijsurgery.com/index.php/isj/article/view/6756
- Poppe, K., Glinoer, D., Tournaye, H., Schiettecatte, J., Devroey, P., Van Steirteghem, A., Haentjens, P., & Velkeniers, B. (2004). Impact of ovarian hyperstimulation on thyroid function in women with and without thyroid autoimmunity. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89(8): 3808-3812.
- Feki, M., Omar, S., Menif, O., Tanfous, N. B., Slimane, H., Zouari, F., Rezigua, H., Chelly, H., & Kaabachi, N. (2008). Thyroid disorders in pregnancy: frequency and association with selected diseases and obstetrical complications in Tunisian women. Clinical Biochemistry, 41(12): 927-931.
- Tayade, S. A. & Chhabra, S. (2018). Iodine status and its determinants in subpopulation of pregnant women in rural central India. International Journal of Reproduction, Contraception, Obstetrics and Gynecology. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol., 7(2):665-670. https://www.ijrcog.org/index.php/ijrcog/article/view/4147
- Sanderson, E., Kassam, S., & Frazer, F. (2019). Supratherapeutic maternal iodine supplementation during pregnancy as a cause for congenital hypothyroidism. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 55(2): 245-246.
- Stechova, K., Mastikova, L., Urbaniec, K., Vanis, M., Hylmarova, S., Kvapil, M., & Pastor, Z. (2019). Sexual dysfunction in women treated for type 1 diabetes and the impact of coexisting thyroid disease. Sexual medicine, 7(2):217-226.
- Gabrielson, A. T., Sartor, R. A., & Hellstrom, W. J. (2019). The impact of thyroid disease on sexual dysfunction in men and women. Sexual Medicine Reviews, 7(1): 57-70.
- Smyth, P. P. (2003). The thyroid, iodine and breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res., 5:235-238. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC314438/
- Alyahya, A., Al Naim, A., AlBahr, A. W., Almansour, F., & Elshebiny, A. (2021). Knowledge of thyroid disease manifestations and risk factors among residents of the Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. Cureus, 13(1): e13035. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7924811/
- Abuhlega, T. A., & Hassan, T. M. (2017). Consumption trend of canned fish in a sample of pupils/students of basic and secondary education in Tripoli, Libya. Arab Journal of Food and Nutrition, 17 (39): 79-91.
- Hassan, T. M., Abuhlega, T. A., & Abshena, H. M. (2021). Trend of canned fish consumption among pupils/students of basic and middle school in the region of Tajura and Garabooly – Libya. Arab Journal of Food and Nutrition, 21(49): 100-113.
- Jin, Y., Luo, X., Ma, Z. F., Dong, Z., Carciofo, R., Li, X., & Skeaff, S. (2020). Adequate iodine intake among young adults in Jiangsu Province, China despite a medium iodine knowledge score. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 10(1): 554-563. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8312987/
- Charlton, K. E., Jooste, P. L., Steyn, K., Levitt, N. S., & Ghosh, A. (2013). A lowered salt intake does not compromise iodine status in Cape Town, South Africa, where salt iodization is mandatory. Nutrition, 29(4): 630-634. https://ign.org/cm_data/2012_Charlton_A_lowered_salt_intake_does_not_compromize_iodine_status_in_SoA_a_country_with_mandatory_USI_Nutr.pdf
- Doggui, R., El Ati-Hellal, M., Traissac, P., & El Ati, J. (2017). Unsatisfactory results of the Tunisian universal salt iodization program on national iodine levels. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 64: 163-170.
- Hutchings, N., Aghajanova, E., Baghdasaryan, S., Qefoyan, M., Sullivan, C., He, X., Manoukian, M., van der Haar, F., Gerasimov, G., Braverman, L., & Bilezikian, J.P. (2019). A stratified cross-sectional cluster model survey of iodine nutrition in Armenia after a decade of universal salt iodization. Endocrine Practice, 25(10): 987-993.
- Habib, M. A., Alam, M. R., Ghosh, S., Rahman, T., Reza, S., & Mamun, S. (2021). Impact of knowledge, attitude, and practice on iodized salt consumption at the household level in selected coastal regions of Bangladesh. Heliyon, 7(4): e06747. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844021008501
- Menyanu, E., Corso, B., Minicuci, N., Rocco, I., Zandberg, L., Baumgartner, J., Russell, J., Naidoo, N., Biritwum, R., Schutte, A.E. & Kowal, P. (2021). Salt-reduction strategies may compromise salt iodization programs: Learnings from South Africa and Ghana. Nutrition, 84, 111065. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0899900720303488
- Dahl, L., Johansson, L., Julshamn, K., & Meltzer, H. M. (2004). The iodine content of Norwegian foods and diets. Public health nutrition, 7(4): 569-576. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/DD0A71C7FE50A502965B533A1C2365C4/S1368980004000679a.pdf/the-iodine-content-of-norwegian-foods-and-diets.pdf
- Bouga, M., & Combet, E. (2016). Dietary interventions and increase of dietary iodine intake–a systematic review. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 75(OCE3): E211. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/dietary-interventions-and-increase-of-dietary-iodine-intake-a-systematic-review/3673F2881B161CBC3DEF146E04794974
- Choi, J. Y., Lee, J. H., & Song, Y. (2021). Evaluation of iodine status among Korean patients with papillary thyroid cancer using dietary and urinary iodine. Endocrinology and Metabolism, 36(3): 607-618. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34154044/
- Lee, S. M., Lewis, J., Buss, D. H., Holcombe, G. D., & Lawrance, P. R. (1994). Iodine in British foods and diets. British Journal of Nutrition, 72(3): 435-446. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/iodine-in-british-foods-and-diets/9A798C2E9F3CDE96E858FF802F126610
- Goyal, I., Pandey, M. R., & Sharma, R. (2020). Hypothyroidism and goiter in a young male with suspected dietary iodine deficiency followed by thyrotoxicosis after iodine supplementation. AACE Clinical Case Reports, 6(1): e19-e22. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7279774/
- Çan, G., Ökten, A., & Green, J. (2001). The role of local mass media in promoting the consumption of iodized table salt. Health Education Research, 16(5): 603-607. https://academic.oup.com/her/article/16/5/603/638405
- Meinhardt, A. K., Müller, A., Burcza, A., & Greiner, R. (2019). Influence of cooking on the iodine content in potatoes, pasta and rice using iodized salt. Food Chemistry, 301: 125293.
Authors
Copyright (c) 2024 Journal of Pure & Applied Sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
In a brief statement, the rights relate to the publication and distribution of research published in the journal of the University of Sebha where authors who have published their articles in the journal of the university of Sebha should how they can use or distribute their articles. They reserve all their rights to the published works, such as (but not limited to) the following rights:
- Copyright and other property rights related to the article, such as patent rights.
- Research published in the journal of the University of Sebha and used in its future works, including lectures and books, the right to reproduce articles for their own purposes, and the right to self-archive their articles.
- The right to enter a separate article, or for a non-exclusive distribution of their article with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in the journal of Sebha University.
Privacy Statement The names and e-mail addresses entered on the Sabha University Journal site will be used for the aforementioned purposes only and for which they were used.
